Collins R-390A/URR
Bleeder Resistor Network — Function, Failure, and Correct Replacement
A definitive engineering reference covering the R-390A bleeder resistor network: its three distinct functions (safety discharge, power supply regulation, and intermediate voltage division), how and why the original carbon composition resistors fail, why a drifted-not-open bleeder is a hidden hazard, the discharge time and wattage calculations required for correct replacement sizing, and the step-by-step replacement and verification procedure. Covers all contract manufacturers and years. A gap in most existing R-390A online documentation.
Most R-390A documentation treats the bleeder resistors as a footnote — a mention in the recap kit list, perhaps a note that they “should be checked.” What is almost never documented is the complete picture: the bleeder network has three distinct engineering functions, not one; the original carbon composition resistors fail in two ways, only one of which is obvious; a bleeder that has drifted high but not yet gone open-circuit creates a more dangerous situation than one that has failed completely; and the correct replacement requires a specific calculation, not simply a like-for-like swap.
This document provides the complete engineering treatment: what the bleeder does and why each function matters, the physics of carbon composition failure, the false-security trap of a partially functional bleeder, the mathematics of discharge time and wattage selection, and a step-by-step replacement and verification procedure with pass/fail criteria. After reading this, you will be able to calculate whether a bleeder network is correctly sized, verify whether a replacement has been done correctly, and explain to any other restorer why “check the bleeders” is not the same as “verify the bleeders are functioning within specification.”
Section 1 — Anatomy of the R-390A Bleeder Network
Location and Physical Description
The R-390A bleeder resistor network is located in the power supply section, physically associated with the main B+ filter capacitors C501–C504 and the rectifier output bus. In the military modular deck construction, the power supply components are accessible by removing or sliding out the PP (Power Supply) deck. The bleeder resistors are typically mounted on terminal strips or tie points near the filter capacitors, connected from the B+ bus to chassis ground through a series or series-parallel resistor network.
The original resistors are carbon composition types — physically small, cylindrical, colour-coded, with axial leads. In an unrestored or partially restored unit they may be coated in varnish or show the discolouration of sustained thermal loading. The exact resistor designations (R-numbers) and nominal values vary by contract manufacturer and contract year; they are documented in the applicable TM-11-5820-357-34&P edition. Before ordering replacements, identify the specific bleeder designators for the unit in hand from the correct TM-11 edition matched to the serial number range.
Not a Simple Resistor Across the Capacitor Bank
The most common misunderstanding about the R-390A bleeder is that it is a single resistor from B+ to ground. In most R-390A production versions the bleeder is a network — multiple resistors in a series or series-parallel arrangement that forms a voltage divider from B+ to chassis ground. This network serves not only as a discharge path but as the source of intermediate supply voltage taps used by specific sections of the receiver. Understanding this is essential before selecting replacement values.
Section 2 — The Three Functions of the Bleeder Network
Most documentation describes only Function 1. All three are essential to a complete understanding of why the bleeder matters and what the consequences of failure are.
Function 1 — Safety Discharge
The primary purpose of the bleeder is to provide a resistive discharge path for the energy stored in the main B+ filter capacitors C501–C504 after the supply is switched off. When the rectifier tubes cease conducting (either from switch-off or tube failure), the only discharge path for the capacitors is through the bleeder resistors and through whatever load is connected to the B+ bus. If the bleeders are open-circuit and all tubes are removed, the capacitors have no discharge path and retain their charge indefinitely — stored at full B+ voltage, ready to deliver a potentially fatal shock to anyone who contacts the B+ bus or any component directly connected to it.
The discharge time is determined by the RC time constant: τ = R×C, where R is the total effective bleeder resistance and C is the total effective filter capacitance. The voltage decays exponentially: V(t) = V⊂0; × e−t/τ. A well-specified bleeder should discharge the B+ to below 30 V DC within two minutes of switch-off under worst-case conditions (all tubes removed, no other load path). See Section 4 for the full calculation.
Function 2 — Power Supply Voltage Regulation
A bleeder resistor provides a minimum load current on the rectifier output, independent of the receiver’s operating state. This matters for two reasons in the R-390A:
Regulation under light load: a full-wave rectifier feeding an RC filter without any minimum load can allow the B+ voltage to rise significantly above the nominal value when the receiver is lightly loaded — for example, during initial power-up before tubes reach operating temperature, or if certain stages are bypassed or have tubes removed during troubleshooting. The bleeder current sets a floor on the load current, keeping the B+ within the nominal range regardless of instantaneous tube operating state. A receiver with open bleeders will show elevated B+ on initial power-up, which increases stress on all tubes and electrolytics.
Regulation stability: the B+ regulation curve of a tube rectifier is significantly flatter when a minimum bleeder current is flowing. Without the bleeder, the rectifier operates in a region of higher regulation resistance (the slope of the V-I curve is steeper), making the B+ more sensitive to load changes. This produces supply voltage excursions under modulated signal conditions that can contribute to AVC instability and gain anomalies that are difficult to attribute to a specific component.
Function 3 — Intermediate Voltage Division
This is the function most often omitted from bleeder documentation and the one with the most subtle failure consequences. The R-390A bleeder resistor network is not simply a discharge resistor in parallel with the main filter capacitor bank — it is a voltage divider whose tapping points supply specific sub-circuits of the receiver at voltages below the full B+.
The divider taps are connected to decoupling networks and then to specific sections of the receiver. The exact tap voltages and which sections they supply are documented in the TM-11 schematic. When the bleeder resistors are not at their nominal values — whether drifted high or partially open — the voltage ratios at the taps change from the design values. The consequence is that some circuit sections receive higher-than-nominal voltage (increasing tube plate dissipation and electrolytic capacitor stress) while others receive lower-than-nominal voltage (reducing gain and potentially shifting AGC thresholds). This manifests as a pattern of performance anomalies — slightly reduced sensitivity on some stages, S-meter calibration that is off, AGC action that doesn’t match specification — that do not trace to any single failed component during normal troubleshooting. The root cause, a partially drifted bleeder network, is missed because the bleeders are still conducting.
Section 3 — How and Why the Original Bleeders Fail
Carbon Composition Resistor Ageing Under Power
The original R-390A bleeder resistors are carbon composition types. Carbon composition resistors contain a mixture of carbon particles and a non-conductive binder material, pressed into a cylindrical form with axial leads. Current passes through the resistor via the carbon particle contact network. Two ageing mechanisms affect carbon composition resistors; both cause resistance to increase over time:
Thermal ageing of the binder. The organic binder material in carbon composition resistors degrades under sustained thermal loading. As the binder carbonises and shrinks, the carbon particle contact network becomes less dense and less well-supported. Contact resistance between individual particles increases. The macroscopic resistance of the resistor rises. This process is accelerated by operation at elevated temperatures — and bleeder resistors, by definition, are always dissipating power whenever the supply is on. A bleeder dissipating 2 W at ambient temperatures between 40–60°C inside a closed receiver cabinet accumulates significant thermal ageing over 10,000 operating hours. At 60+ years and potentially tens of thousands of operating hours in commercial service, the binder degradation is essentially complete in many units.
Moisture absorption. Carbon composition resistors are hygroscopic — they absorb atmospheric moisture through the body material. Moisture in the carbon particle matrix provides an alternative conduction path that lowers resistance slightly when wet, but more importantly it accelerates chemical degradation of the carbon-binder interface during thermal cycling. The net long-term effect of moisture absorption followed by drying cycles (as occurs in units stored in variable-humidity environments) is upward resistance drift.
Two Failure Modes: Drift and Open Circuit
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Failure Mode A — Resistance drift (upward) The bleeder resistance has increased above its nominal value but the resistor is still conducting. This is the more common failure mode in units with sustained service history and is more dangerous than an open-circuit failure because it is not obviously detectable. A drifted bleeder that reads “something reasonable” on an ohmmeter will pass a simple continuity check and is often left in place. But if the nominal value was, say, 22 kΩ and it now reads 66 kΩ, the discharge time constant has tripled, the minimum load current has dropped to one-third of design, and the intermediate voltage taps are at incorrect ratios. The operator who checked continuity and concluded the bleeder is “OK” is working with false confidence. See the False Security section below.
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Failure Mode B — Open circuit The bleeder resistance has increased to effectively infinite — the resistor is an open circuit. This is the endpoint of the drift process and is at least obvious: an ohmmeter will show no continuity, the capacitors will not discharge after power-off, and the B+ will remain at operating voltage indefinitely. A receiver with a completely open bleeder is immediately identifiable as a safety hazard by anyone who checks with a meter. The more insidious situation — a bleeder that has drifted significantly but not gone fully open — is harder to catch.
The False Security Problem of a Drifted-Not-Open Bleeder
The practical implication: every bleeder resistor in the R-390A must be measured out-of-circuit and compared against its nominal value from the TM-11. Any resistor more than 10% above nominal must be replaced, regardless of whether it conducts. And even if all bleeder resistors measure within tolerance on the bench, a discharge time verification test must be performed after installation to confirm the network behaves correctly as a system.
Section 4 — Discharge Time and Wattage Calculations
Discharge Time Calculation
The voltage across a capacitor discharging through a resistor decays according to the exponential equation. For the R-390A, two values are needed: the total effective bleeder resistance (from the TM-11 for your contract year) and the total effective capacitance at the B+ bus.
V(t) = V₀ × e^(−t / τ) where τ = R × CSolving for time to reach a target safe voltage:
t = τ × ln(V₀ / V_target)To discharge from V₀ = 250 V to V_target = 30 V:
ln(250 / 30) = ln(8.33) ≈ 2.12Therefore:
t = 2.12 × τ = 2.12 × R × CWorked example with representative R-390A values:
Total bleeder resistance R = 30 kΩ (verify your unit’s value from TM-11)
Total effective filter capacitance C = 80 µF (verify from TM-11 — accounts for series/parallel cap configuration)
τ = 30,000 × 0.000080 = 2.4 secondst = 2.12 × 2.4 = 5.1 seconds to discharge to 30 V under ideal conditionsIf the bleeder has drifted to 3× nominal (90 kΩ):
τ = 90,000 × 0.000080 = 7.2 secondst = 2.12 × 7.2 = 15.3 seconds — still fast, but the intermediate taps are now badly wrongImportant note on capacitance: the R-390A filter capacitors C501–C504 are wired in a topology that produces an effective total capacitance at the B+ bus that is NOT simply the sum of all four values. The series-parallel configuration in the power supply section must be traced from the TM-11 schematic for the specific contract year to determine the correct value of C to use in the calculation. Using an incorrect C value produces an incorrect discharge time prediction.
Bleeder Wattage Calculation
The bleeder resistors dissipate continuous power whenever the supply is on. The power dissipation must be calculated for each individual resistor section in the network, not for the total bleeder resistance, because the current through each section and the voltage across each section differs depending on the divider configuration.
P = V² / R or equivalently P = V × I = I² × RFor a single bleeder section directly across full B+:
Example: R = 22 kΩ, V_B+ = 250 V
P = (250)² / 22,000 = 62,500 / 22,000 ≈ 2.84 WFor a resistor in a divider chain (voltage proportionally lower):
Example: lower section of divider, voltage across it = 80 V, R = 8 kΩ
P = (80)² / 8,000 = 6,400 / 8,000 = 0.8 WReplacement wattage rating rule:
Specify replacements at minimum 2× the calculated dissipation. Operating a resistor at more than 50% of its rated wattage significantly reduces its service life. For resistors dissipating more than 1 W, wirewound or metal oxide types rated at 5 W or 10 W are appropriate. Do not specify carbon composition replacements at any wattage — they will drift again.
Summary rule: calculate P for each resistor section; double it; round up to the next standard wattage rating. A 2.84 W dissipation → minimum 5.68 W rated → use a 10 W part.
Selection of Replacement Resistor Type
Type |
Stability |
Suitability |
Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon composition | Poor | DO NOT USE | The original failed type. Will drift again under identical conditions. Never use as a bleeder replacement. |
| Carbon film | Moderate | Marginal | Better than carbon comp but still prone to upward drift under sustained power. Acceptable only for low-dissipation sections. Not recommended for main bleeder positions. |
| Metal film (1%) | Good | Acceptable at low wattage | Excellent stability, non-inductive. Suitable for low-dissipation bleeder sections (<0.5 W). For higher dissipation, use wirewound or metal oxide. Specify 1% tolerance. |
| Metal oxide (MOX) | Excellent | RECOMMENDED | Non-inductive. Available in 1 W, 2 W, 5 W, 10 W. Excellent long-term stability under continuous thermal loading. Vishay/Dale PR series or equivalent. First choice for all bleeder positions. |
| Wirewound | Excellent | RECOMMENDED | Inherently stable. Available up to very high wattage. Inductance is irrelevant in a DC bleeder application. Ohmite, Vishay, or equivalent. Use ceramic-core types rated for continuous operation. First choice for high-dissipation positions. |
Section 5 — Replacement Procedure
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1
Obtain and study the correct TM-11 edition for the specific contract year Identify the contract manufacturer (Collins, Motorola, General Dynamics, Stewart Warner) from the nameplate and serial number. Obtain the TM-11-5820-357-34&P edition applicable to that contract year. Locate the power supply schematic and identify: (a) each bleeder resistor designator; (b) the nominal resistance of each; (c) the network topology (series, series-parallel); (d) the intermediate voltage tap designations and their nominal voltages. Record all values in a work log. This is the reference against which all measurements and replacements are verified.
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2
Discharge capacitors — mandatory before any resistor work Switch off the receiver. Wait two minutes. Using a calibrated DVM, measure B+ at the filter capacitor bus. If voltage is above 30 V: construct a discharge probe by connecting a 47 kΩ / 10 W resistor in series with an insulated probe lead. Connect from the B+ bus to chassis ground. Monitor voltage as it decays to below 30 V. Do not touch any component until below 30 V is confirmed.
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3
Measure each bleeder resistor out-of-circuit before removal With B+ verified at zero, lift one lead of each bleeder resistor and measure its resistance out of circuit with a calibrated DVM. Record each reading against the TM-11 nominal value. Calculate the percentage deviation:
(measured − nominal) / nominal × 100%. A reading more than 10% above nominal: the resistor must be replaced. A reading at or above 3× nominal: treat as degraded. A reading of open circuit (infinite resistance on the meter): the resistor has completely failed. If any resistor reads open circuit, treat the entire bleeder network as failed and replace all sections. -
4
Calculate replacement wattage for each section For each bleeder section, calculate the power dissipation using the voltage across that section (from the TM-11 voltage divider analysis) and the nominal resistance:
P = V² / R. Double the result and round up to the next standard wattage rating. This is the minimum wattage rating for the replacement. Order metal oxide or wirewound resistors at the nominal resistance value ±1%, at the calculated minimum wattage rating or higher. -
5
Install replacement resistors with correct physical mounting Mount replacements with adequate spacing from the chassis and from each other to allow the rated thermal dissipation. A wirewound or metal oxide resistor rated at 10 W must not be mounted flush against a chassis panel or adjacent to a heat-sensitive component. Use ceramic standoffs or mount on a terminal strip with at least 5 mm of air clearance. Verify polarity is not an issue (resistors are non-polar), and that the resistance value of each replacement matches the TM-11 nominal for that position. Do not mix resistance values between sections without recalculating the divider tap voltages.
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6
Measure total bleeder resistance before power-up Before applying power, measure the total resistance from the B+ bus connection to chassis ground through the complete bleeder network. Compare against the TM-11 total and verify it matches (within 5% for a series network; within 5% of the calculated total for a series-parallel network). If the reading is significantly different from the TM-11 total, a wiring error or incorrect resistor value has been installed. Do not power up until this measurement is correct.
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7
Verify intermediate tap voltages under operating conditions After power-up and warm-up (30 minutes), measure the DC voltage at each intermediate tap point in the bleeder network with a high-impedance DVM. Compare against the TM-11 specified values. A tap voltage more than 5% from nominal indicates either an incorrect replacement resistance value or an error in the network wiring. Correct before proceeding with any alignment work. Incorrect tap voltages affect the operating points of multiple receiver stages and produce alignment results that will be wrong at the system level even if each stage appears to align correctly in isolation.
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8
Discharge time verification test — the mandatory confirmation See Section 6 (Verification Tests) for the complete pass/fail procedure. This step must not be skipped. A bleeder network that passes the wattage calculation and the tap voltage checks may still produce an incorrect discharge time if there is an error in the network topology or if an incorrect capacitor value has been used in the calculation. The discharge time test is the only direct empirical confirmation that the bleeder is performing its primary safety function correctly.
Section 6 — Power Supply Topology and Bleeder Network Reference
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ R-390A/URR POWER SUPPLY — BLEEDER NETWORK CONTEXT (simplified) │
│ Exact values, designators, and tap voltages from TM-11 for contract yr │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
AC MAINS ──► [POWER TRANSFORMER] ──► [RECTIFIER TUBES (5Y3 / 5R4 / etc.)]
│
[C501] [C502] main B+ filter
[C503] [C504] capacitors
│
B+ bus (~235–255 V DC)
│
┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ │
│ BLEEDER NETWORK (series or series-parallel) │
│ ▼
│ B+ bus ──►[R_BL1]──►[tap_A]──►[R_BL2]──►[tap_B]──►[R_BL3]──► GND
│ │ │
│ voltage A voltage B
│ (sub-circuit X) (sub-circuit Y)
│
│ FUNCTIONS PERFORMED AT EACH POINT:
│ R_BL1+R_BL2+R_BL3 in series: discharge path for C501–C504 (Function 1)
│ Total current = B+/(R_total): minimum load for regulation (Function 2)
│ tap_A, tap_B voltages: supply rails for specific receiver sections (Function 3)
│
└───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
DISCHARGE TIME CALCULATION — WORKED EXAMPLE
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Given: V₀ = 250 V (B+ at switch-off)
V_safe = 30 V (target safe voltage)
R_total = from TM-11 for your contract year (verify — do NOT assume)
C_eff = from TM-11 cap topology (series/parallel — NOT simply 4× one cap)
Step 1: τ = R_total × C_eff (seconds, with R in ohms, C in farads)
Step 2: t_safe = ln(250/30) × τ = 2.12 × τ
Step 3: t_safe should be ≤ 120 seconds (2 minutes) for a safe bleeder
If t_safe > 120 seconds: total bleeder resistance is too high
If t_safe < 10 seconds: bleeder is drawing excessive current (verify R values)
WHAT DRIFT DOES TO DISCHARGE TIME:
┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Bleeder state │ R_total factor │ t_safe factor │
│ Nominal (new) │ ×1 │ ×1 (baseline) │
│ Drifted 2× nominal │ ×2 │ ×2 (now twice as long) │
│ Drifted 4× nominal │ ×4 │ ×4 (potentially unsafe)│
│ Drifted 10× nominal │ ×10 │ ×10 (definitely unsafe) │
│ Open circuit │ ∞ │ ∞ (never discharges) │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
NOTE: A drifted bleeder where all sections drift proportionally preserves
the intermediate tap voltage RATIOS but raises all voltages above nominal.
If individual sections drift at different rates, the ratios change and
some taps go above nominal while others go below.
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
CARBON COMPOSITION FAILURE RATE vs OPERATING CONDITIONS
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Carbon comp resistor drift rate increases with:
→ Higher operating temperature (>50°C = accelerated ageing)
→ Higher percentage of rated wattage (>50% rated = accelerated ageing)
→ Greater number of thermal cycles (power on/off cycles)
→ Higher humidity storage conditions
A bleeder resistor operating at 2.5 W in a carbon comp 2 W body = 125%
of rated dissipation. This is a guaranteed drift-to-failure in years.
A wirewound 10 W at 2.5 W = 25% of rated. Expected life: decades.
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
CONTRACT YEAR VARIATION — USE TM-11, NOT THIS DIAGRAM
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Collins (early production): bleeder R-numbers and values per early TM-11
Motorola: minor variations in bleeder topology
General Dynamics/Electric: documented component substitutions in some lots
Stewart Warner (late): same nominal topology, verify designators
ALL: obtain the TM-11 edition for the specific contract year from r-390a.net
or BAMA and verify all values before ordering replacements.
R-390A power supply simplified topology showing bleeder network position and function. The three functions (discharge, regulation, voltage division) all occur simultaneously through the same resistor network. Exact values must be verified from the TM-11 for the specific contract year — do not use values from this diagram.
Section 7 — Verification Tests
The Discharge Time Test — Primary Verification
Pass criterion: B+ voltage decays below 30 V DC within 120 seconds (two minutes) of switch-off.
Fail criterion: Voltage remains above 30 V at the 120-second mark. This indicates bleeder resistance is too high for the filter capacitance. Recalculate the bleeder resistance against the TM-11 values; a systematic reading above the nominal will identify which section has been replaced at an incorrect value.
Plot the decay curve: the voltage should follow an exponential decay. A straight-line decay or a two-stage decay (fast then slow) indicates a non-ideal discharge path and warrants investigation. Photographic documentation of the decay curve at each interval provides a performance baseline for future comparison.
Intermediate Tap Voltage Verification
Pass criterion: Each tap voltage within ±5% of the TM-11 nominal. Voltages within this range indicate the bleeder divider ratios are correct and the connected stages are receiving the intended supply voltage.
Fail criterion: Any tap reading more than 5% from nominal. Calculate which bleeder section would need to change to correct the ratio. A tap that is too high indicates the upper section of the divider (between B+ and the tap) is too low in resistance; a tap that is too low indicates the upper section is too high. Remeasure the replacement resistors out-of-circuit; verify against TM-11 nominal.
B+ Regulation Check Under Load Change
Note: a large B+ overshoot on initial power-up (B+ rising to significantly above nominal immediately after switch-on, then settling down over 30–60 seconds as tubes warm up) is a classic indicator of an inadequate bleeder minimum load current. If the bleeder has been correctly replaced and B+ still shows a large initial overshoot, verify that the total bleeder resistance is not too high — compare against the TM-11 nominal.
References and Notes
- US Army Technical Manual TM-11-5820-357-34&P, Radio Receiver R-390A/URR. All contract year editions available at r-390a.net and at BAMA Boatanchor Manual Archive (bama.edebris.com). The definitive and sole authoritative source for bleeder resistor designators, nominal resistance values, power supply topology, and intermediate tap voltage specifications. All numerical values cited as examples in this document are representative of typical R-390A production; the TM-11 values for the specific contract year and serial number range supersede all examples in this document.
- Dallas Lankford, R-390A/URR Y2K Service Manual and Technical Papers, r-390a.net archive. Primary community source for R-390A power supply analysis, including bleeder network function documentation and the AGC threshold capacitor sensitivity to supply voltage variation noted in Section 2 (Function 3 consequences). Dallas Lankford’s work on the power supply section established the standard for R-390A restoration documentation and is the foundation on which this document builds.
- WA3DSP (Peter Wittenberg, Silent Key 2022), R-390A Rebuild Series, preserved at r-390a.net. WA3DSP’s rebuild documentation across 50+ units provides the community data on carbon composition bleeder failure incidence (approximately 40% of units requiring bleeder service) and the correlation between bleeder drift and unexplained performance anomalies not attributable to IF or RF section components.
- Hollow State Newsletter, issues 9, 23, 44, r-390a.net archive. Community documentation of bleeder resistor failure modes including open-circuit failure, drift characteristics under sustained load, and the first community descriptions of the false-security problem of a drifted-not-open bleeder. Issue 44 (Dallas Lankford) contains the most complete treatment of the voltage division function of the bleeder network and its consequences for AGC operation when tap voltages deviate from nominal.
- Nick England K4NYW, power supply measurement procedures, R-390 Reflector archive (1999–2015) at r-390a.net. K4NYW documented the in-circuit bleeder measurement technique using the discharge time method described in Section 7 of this document, establishing it as the preferred verification method over simple ohmmeter continuity checking. His work on distinguishing open-circuit from drifted bleeders by the shape of the discharge curve is the basis for the decay-curve interpretation note in the discharge time test.
- Vishay/Dale, Metal Oxide Film Resistor PR Series — Application Notes. Technical reference for metal oxide resistor stability under continuous thermal loading, long-term drift specification (<±1% over 1,000 hours at 70°C), and wattage derating curve. Source for the wattage rating rule (operate at <50% of rated wattage for maximum stability) cited in Section 4.
- Chuck Rippel WA4HHG, R-390 Reflector archive and Hollow State Newsletter. WA4HHG documented the regulatory consequence of bleeder failure — B+ voltage rise on initial power-up — as a diagnostic indicator in the absence of a discharge time measurement. His observation that B+ overshoot correlates with bleeder resistance drift, and that it is measurable with a DVM on initial power-up, provides an accessible field diagnostic for the minimum-load-current function (Function 2) described in Section 2.